Trends in Family Formation Supporting Same Sex Marriage

Trends in family formation are crucial in determining the kind of families that will exist in future generations. It is fact that the father- mother kind of families that have existed for many generations maintained over the years due to the belief that they were the ideal type of family set up. However, the trends in family formation today are changing as a growing number of families are experiencing several challenges such as divorce, single parent situations, financial problems, legal battles over custody and wealth and infidelity, among other challenges. These have caused young people to question whether the traditional way of doing things is practical in the twenty first century and many do not intend on following their parents’†¦show more content†¦Parental abuse therefore contributes to the rates of same sex marriages. Roberts (2005) brings out that sexual conduct and family trends are additionally growing less traditional and are growing more tolerant to diver sity. This diversity on the other hand refers to matters of non marital parenting, non marital cohabitation and matters of divorce. The modern trend of non marital cohabitation is a great factor that encourages young people to practice abnormal behavior. Because the society has become tolerant to people living together without being married, it is common practice for people to have multiple sexual partners. This in turn has made some people to feel unsatisfied with heterosexual relationships especially when none of the former partners ever met their expectations. This happens especially for women who claim that men cannot satisfy their diverse needs and so end up looking for other women who can understand what they go through. The modern trend of viewing sexual satisfaction as a requirement for a happy relationship leads many people into homosexuality in an attempt to fulfill their sexual needs. Gender equality has furthermore made women to believe in the notion that â€Å"what men can do women can do better†. Women have become more confident and as a result gender roles have changed even in the family set up (Roberts, 2005). In previous times, men went to work and women remained in theShow MoreRelatedFamily Diversity2452 Words   |  10 PagesDiversity In Families According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, A family consists of a domestic group of people (or a number of domestic groups), typically affiliated by birth or marriage, or by comparable legal relationships-including domestic partnership, adoption, surname and (in some cases) ownership. Although many people (including social scientists) have understood familial relationships in the terms of blood, many anthropologists have argued that one must understand the notion ofRead MoreCohabitation : Cohabitation And Relationship Decisions3858 Words   |  16 Pagessin as some would call it, has sparked much argument in the 21st century. Cohabitation is a family structure in which two people who are not married live together long-term while in a sexually intimate relationship. Until recently our laws, and our values have not been supportive of anything other than the traditional marriage between a man, and a woman; who did not live together/have sex before marriage. Cohabitation, like almost all forms of alternative relationship, has become more widely acceptedRead MoreFamily As A Social Institution Doc Essay5585 Words   |  23 Pages03 1.1 Definition Of Family 03 1.2 Only Child families 03 1.3 Largest Families 03-04 1.4 Single Parent families 04 1.5 Marriage 04 1.6 Types of Marriage 04-05 1.7 Mate Selection 05 2. Structure of Family 05-07 3. Stages of Family 07 3.1 Stage One 07 3.2 Stage Two 07 3.3 Stage Three 07 3.4 Stage Four 07-08 3.5 Stage Five 08 3.6 Stage Six 08 4. Role Of Family 08-09 4.1 Toward children 09 4.2 Toward Parent 09-10 5. Theoretical analysis of the family 10 5.1 Function of the family structural functionalRead MoreEthnic Reproduction and the Amniotic Deep: Joy Kogawas Obasan13316 Words   |  54 PagesINTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Introduction and overview (p. 428) Affiliation: the need for other people (p. 428) Love and intimacy (p. 428) Relationships: definitions and varieties (p. 429) Voluntary/involuntary relationships (p. 429) Arranged marriages (p. 430) Gay and lesbian relationships (p. 430) ‘Electronic’ friendships (p. 431) Different types of love (p. 431) The power of love (p. 431) Is romantic love unique to western culture? (p. 431) An evolutionary theory of love: love as attachmentRead MorePre-Marital Sex, Sample Paper12712 Words   |  51 PagesMrs. Yuyun and all friends in BKKBN for their helpful supports. Then, I would like thanks to my parents â€Å"bapak Donny S. M. Situmorang and ibu Theresia Lauretta Hutabarat†, my brothers â€Å"Freddy and Christian†, and my girlfriend â€Å"Henny Pakpahan† for supporting me mentally and physically, and encourage me during the study period in Mahidol University. Finally, I would like to say a grateful acknowledgement to all my classmates, bang Christian Saragih, Mulyadi, Yunus Adhi Prasetyo, Veronica Meriam AngelinaRead MoreMarriage Guidance: Summary Notes19959 Words   |  80 PagesMarriage Guidance – Summary MGG201W MGG201W – Marriage Guidance – facilitative couples counselling Theme ONE – Understanding couples Intimacy involves: love, affection and caring, deep attachment to another person. The TRIPOD of couple relationships An intimate relationship consists of three factors that form a tripod on which the relationship rests. 1. Passionate attraction (PA) 2. Mutual expectations (ME) 3. Personal intentions (PI) Passionate attractions (PA) → Individual experiencesRead MoreSociology Essay20437 Words   |  82 PagesCrown copyright  © material is reproduced under Class Licence No. CO1 W 0000195 with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland; Guardian News and Media Ltd for extracts from Ros Taylor, ‘Classes in non-traditional family life proposed by government’, The Guardian, 12.05.00. Copyright  © Guardian News Media Ltd 2000; Will Woodward, ‘Testing †¦ testing †¦ testing’, The Guardian 20.05.00. Copyright  © Guardian News Media Ltd 2000; ‘Adoption boost for gay couples’Read More Citizenship and The French Revolution Essay7066 Words   |  29 Pagesborn and remain free and equal in rights,† began the â€Å"Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen,† a document that was supposed to be applicable to all Frenchmen. But did the Declaration really apply to the Jews, Black African slaves, and women in the same respect as it applied to its creators, and was it even intended to do so? Historians have taken diverse approaches to the study of the French Revolutionary era. Perhaps this is because the French Revolution impacted different groups of people in quiteRead MoreDiscuss the Importance of Non Verbal Communication to Education24125 Words   |  97 PagesAssessing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on IFAD-Supported Projects 34. This section looks at the relevance of HIV/AIDS to agricultural and rural development projects, considering the vulnerability of project target groups and IFAD project staff and their families to HIV/AIDS; the reduced project implementation capacity resulting from the epidemic; and the continued relevance of IFAD-funded project objectives, strategies and interventions. It also proposes a Framework on the Relevance of HIV/AIDS to AgriculturalRead MoreGlobalization and It Effects on Cultural Integration: the Case of the Czech Republic.27217 Words   |  109 Pageseither our parents or schools or the environment we grow, we know culture. Giddens referred culture to be â€Å"the way of life of the members of the society† or â€Å"of groups within a society† Giddens (2002:22). It includes how they dress, their marriage customs and family, their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits. The above definition by Clifford Geertz is considered by Giddens as a sociological definition of culture. The sociologists believe culture is only learned. That is â€Å"those

Evolution Of Humans Under The Lactose Intolerance Aspect...

Introduction I will be discussing the evolution in humans under the lactose intolerance aspect of us as an organism. Many scientists believe that we have evolved from a form of primate over the hundreds and thousands of years. Which we have a ton of evidence/research to back up these claims. In a study from (Musacchio, 2016) it explains the relationship of our brains to chimpanzees. Imaging of the apical progenitor mitosis showed a lengthening of prometaphase-metaphase in humans compared to chimpanzees that is specific to proliferating progenitors. The small set of genes that are more highly expressed in human apical progenitors points to increased proliferative capacity, and the proportion of neurogenic basal progenitors is lower in humans. These slight differences in cortical progenitors between humans and chimpanzees have had consequences for human neocortex evolution but show the evolution and relation between the two species. In other terms humans evolve every day, we reproduce at an alarmin g rate creating different versions of ourselves every second of the day. Whether they be good or bad mutations all of us are completely different and some traits can seem to dominate and be more common in people. For example, we all typically hold a constant body temperature at 98 degrees F, eat food for energy, require water, and convert oxygen into CO2. Not only us procreating daily creates more opportunity for evolution and mutations but also the surroundings each of us are set in

Flow of Accounting Information System - Free Solution

Question: Describe about the Accounting Information System for Cash Flow of Budget. Answer: Case Study 1 Introduction AIS is a framework that evaluates the financial data of any organization with the aim of making excellent financial or economical management accounting system. AIS keep the track of organizations fund flows and financial assets. The fundamental motive of the financial Accounting Information System is to accomplish the organizations financial necessities by using the latest techniques of accounting and business reporting and provides reliable services. The output produced through this AIS system includes the Cash Flow of Assets, Quality Accounting Reports, Employed Capital Reports and Capital Budget Reports. Accounting Information System The field of Accounting Information System has witnessed several changes in the recent time. AIS software modifies the accounting system of any organization from manual or paper-based ledgers and journals to purely automated or computerized as well as the paperless system. Although AIS system is very effective, even then the transformation of paper-based system into computerized system is done with great efforts. Development and growth of an Accounting Information System is not easy. Accounting Information Systems are commonly utilized by many organizations (Ciftci, 2010). It is because Accounting information System is configured as well as customized to fulfill the organizations requirement. AIS is the framework of records and files which a business utilizes to contol or mangage its accounting framework. Previously many organizations used traditional technique which was a paper-based procedure to accomplish its business reporting procedures with a lot of wastage of money and time. H owever with the introduction of AIS system the interest of organizations has increased towards this new technique to accomplish its business needs. Therefore the expansion of the AIS framework will converge into bigger as well as the more incorporated system like ERP (Collier, 2003). Nowadays, Enterprise Resource Planning framework (ERP) can effeciently perform a wide range of the organizations functions as well as help the organization to integrate its accounting or business reporting into a coordinated database. The ERP and AIS frameworks appear as the most effective weapon which can support an association to achieve the different organizational goals. Moreover, ERP framework can likewise give a wide accumulation of functionalities to a business, endorsed by characteristics like Adaptability of Reports, Quality Management of Reports, Finest Business Forms as well as Quality Accounting and Business Reporting (Fisher, 2007). Business Process Disk4U is the Sydney-based organization which offers CDs and also sells Vinyl Records to its customers. It's a small family enterprise with some outlets widespread across the Sydney city. Currently, Disk4Us main business is to sell products to its clients through different modes such as through shop front, by means of mail as well as through phone calls. Additionally some fresh and innovative methods, for instance, online channels have been presented by Ebay. This development has made it truly important for Disk4U to enhance its manual procedure of business reporting as well as to upgrade the accounting process of the organization. I, as a consultant also believe that the organization need to set up the suitable AIS for its association. Hence the process of selecting an AIS is also included in this report. Disk4U hired me as a consultant to help this organization to provide a report on how technologies are utilized to upgrade the firms operations particularly in the areas of accounti ng. Disk4U is allowed to consume only $150,000 for accounting information ssytem AIS so the chief executive needs a complete report in relation to broad details of AIS software and its vendor. System requirements Disk4U needs an Accounting Information System, which helps in recording, dissecting as well as the recording of the organizations financial data. Besides this, the reason to use AIS is to continuously capture the data that is present in the proceedings as well as to record the income and costs of Disk4U. Organizations choose to execute the AIS to enhance its financial accounting system and its reporting ability (Funnell, 2012). Therefore the organization DISK4U also requires an accounting information system which can support the organization to ensure that its financial data is collected and assembled in a precise as well as in a timely manner. The main aim of the organization to use an AIS is to recognize all the considerable activities which might impact the organization financially. The activities considered in it are loan lending, sales, purchases, investments made and so on. AIS likewise gives an appropriate approach to Disk4U to take care of, as well as monitor its monetary inf ormation, like all the information is arranged in journal ledger and entries. Therefore, it helps organizations to increase the interior checks within the organizations (Issue Information - TOC, 2016). Benefits of AIS: In this focused world, every business requires speedy, reliable, suitable, and satisfactory data for observing, analyzing, controlling diverse exercises those have a critical impact on the organization's performance. Through AIS, an organization can enhance its performance as well as control its assets in an exceptionally well manner (Information technology, 2012). Software Selection: Disk4U FreshBooks: Loved by approximately five million customers, FreshBooks accounting software lets organization to make a professional looking solicitations or invoices within few seconds, automatically it easily records the costs with ease as well as track Disk4Us accounting reports efficiently and quickly. Therefore, higher authorities of organization can concentrate more on some other important factors such as serving the requirements of its customers. One day the president of FreshBooks organization accidentally redeemed its one old invoice, then he got to know that there is better and an appropriate way to handle of manage this reports by use of AIS software (Jiang, 2016). Throughout the following two weeks, Mike coded up an answer and finally transformed its business reporting procedure from manul to automated system which is now named as FreshBooks. Almost after one decade there are more than five million clients of FreshBook accounting software. The FreshBooks accounting software has become the cloud accounting expert for small entrepreneurs. FreshBooks is the software which is utilized by organization at any place and at any time (Mohd, 2005). FreshBooks accounting software is not a twofold bookkeeping program which is intended for each unpredictable accounting issue confronted by professionals, rather it is the customer confronting software which helps the Disk4U entrepreneur and its administrators to easily assemble and compose the information online with the help of effective or advanced format (Lin and Smith, 2006). This solution lets the Disk4Us accounting experts as well as its software assistance team to concentrate more on it and provide High Value Tax Advice and Accounting Services to its managers rather than a manual procedure in which organizing, entering, as well as analyzing of reports is done with lots of time and funds wastage (Nikitkov and Sainty, 2008). This application is likewise so profitable for customers that they can easily compose i ts accounting data and help Disk4U to accomplish its business goals.Thus Disk4Us team can transform its accounting reports from manual to this automated accounting software. Software Vendor FreshBooks accounting software is the cloud-based bookkeeping or accounting software, intended for proprietors of all sorts of business. Moreover for the organizations that send solicitations to customers as well as get paid for its expertise and time. The organization represents itself by providing its brilliant services to around five million clients. The Organization Freshbooks accounting software was initially named as 2ndSite accounting software (Peng and Janie Chang, 2010). The company rebranded the product in 2006 as FreshBooks based on burgeoning Web 2.0 form. Situated in Canada, Toronto, FreshBooks serves to pay clients in more than 120 nations. In July 2014, this organization declared that it had upraised its software rates to $30 million (Powner, 2012). FreshBooks is straightforward and instinctive, so accounting of records is effective and free from errors. Disk4U organization invoiced its customers by providing cost effective accounting and business report services in th e blink of an eye. FreshBooks saves clients time of its customers at an average of two days monthly from daily accounting tasks. With the help of the Freshbooks accounting Software, Disk4U spend less time on the paper-based work and focus more on the other important tasks of organization and spend time in performing tasks which matter the most. FreshBooks is gives a chance to Disk4US business owners in order to get composed and arrange its accounting services and get paid for quality services. The FreshBooks accounting software makes professional invoices, accept credit cards, log receipts. It also makes it speedy and simple to produce well-known reports like benefit and misfortune reports, tax summary reports, cost reports and a few more. Effortlessly, Sort and Filter, Reports taking a look who is slow to pay shared Journal ledgers to Disk4U accountant. Freshbooks software makes an effective recording and collection of Invoices in just a few seconds and helps Disk4U to take its bus iness to the next level (Romney and Steinbart, 2006). Conclusion In this study, it has been concluded that AIS plays a significant role in any organization to accomplish its goals and to take its business to the next level. Fast, reliable, proper and satisfactory data go through the top to bottom as well as from bottom to top through this accounting information system. It concludes that AIS supports in enhancing the Disk4Us performance by highlighting the several concerned areas of its trade. Therefore, AIS FreshBooks accounting software is the essential software for Disk4U to keep its accounting data safe and secure. Therefore, the organizations use FreshBooks AIS as per their needs and in a way that organizations can also modify them in the future. Case Study 2 Introduction Accounting Information system (AIS) offers a perfect financial data framework for the company to take enhanced nonfinancial as well as financial decisions. AIS and ERP provides a framework for easy accumulation, collection, and assessing of organizations financial data. AIS are utilized within the organization, before taking any sort of delicate accounting decisions. It is a computer-based system to complete organizations accounting tasks. This is a report for a Sungate organization to provide a detailed study of the procedures of selecting AIS to take some informed decisions in the field of accounting software to upgrade its business in future. AIS provide support to employees of Sungate to select suitable AIS software to accomplish its business fruitfully and overcome many issues which affect the organizations accounting system. Accounting Information System Accounting Information System (AIS) is a framework utilized to record a business and to keep-up its accounting framework. AIS consolidates the bookkeeping and updated field of the accounting data framework. The Data framework incorporates individuals, procedures, methods and data innovation in adaptable assets to handle information. Moreover, AIS is a subset of Management Information System (MIS) which is utilized in every stage of accounting administration in organization to help managers in decision-making processes (Simon, Stier and Reese, 2015). AIS accounting software is a conventional bookkeeping technique and contemporary model in bookkeeping practices. It is assumed as an essential factor to overcome the time waste during the dealing of the organization's accounting activities. Moreover, AIS is a system to collect as well as to record the information about the exercises and exchanges, planning, processing of the information and transforming it into data to be utilized for bas ic leadership. AIS helps the organization to automate the procedures of business bookkeeping performance and arrangement of expository data. The Procedures, Information and Exchanges accessible from Sage50c give clients with a data so that they arrange, control and do work as per their needs. In olden times, when the bookkeeping data was handled and recorded in monetary articulations physically, it was generally less demanding for the evaluator to watch the review trail created in a physical configuration. The Information System included in some parts of bookkeeping frameworks is used to mechanize the minor bookkeeping procedures, for example, payroll processing. After some time, bookkeeping and data frameworks began to coordinate and additional bookkeeping tasks were automated. The key hidden driver of advancement is just that bookkeeping no more drives the data framework; rather the data framework drives the bookkeeping (Suryanto, 2011). Accounting Information System is a smaller part of the entire Information System (IS) of the association and as associations keeps on increasing their dependence on PC technologies to process, record as well as report monetary data, reviewers will without a doubt need to depend on a fresh data innovation strategy in a conduct of its reviews. Benefits: Accounting records and files are investigated and reports are set up with the assistance of AIS. This builds the precision and reliability; quality of reports since AIS is well fitted for giving mistake free data. Business Process Sungate Foods, the Victoria-based organization, is the producer of rice as well as wild rice. It processes up to eighty tons every hour. In the year 2013, Sungate utilized a base of approximately hundred employees in three warehouse centers in Western Victoria along with a marketing office located in Melbourne. In the peak season, the process of organization reaches approximately eight tons every hour, where the employees tops Two-hundred per day, in a weekly shift. Employees worked weeks completing the business reports and financial data from the theory ISs and its configurations. In some specific circumstances, a few choices could not wait for the satisfactory data so the stock is generally kept very high to guarantee to complete the orders. The Chief Executive of Sungate organization hired me as a consultant to provide them a report regarding the AIS selection procedure to enhance its accounting as well as business systems under the budget which is $150,000. System requirements This IT Age characterizes electronic confirmation as data is transmitted, prepared, kept up, and accessed by electronic means and then it is utilized by an examiner to assess monetary articulation assertions. The idea of electronic confirmation made new difficulties for the advanced examiner as the customary review trail could not be observed again and again. This required examiners of Sungate to consider the utilization of PC review strategies and keep in mind the end goal to have the capacity to review tests on electronic proofs (Wang, 2008). The utilization of new procedures will, in the long run, enhance the viability and effectiveness of the review and Sungate's accounting examiner will be free from completing numerous conventional routine tasks and concentrate more on important tasks, for example, customer's needs. AIS works towards the achievement of Sungate's business profits when there is a consolidation of data and correspondence advances. Hence, it will drive towards the d evelopment of bookkeeping practices. Some of this responsibility generally is Procedure Administration and Operational Exercises Christensen, 2010). In modern associations, it becomes significant that the accounting information framework produces the information which is aligned or adjusted to a strategic point of view (Whittred and Zimmer, 2009). This are some requirements which Sungate need for its AIS model. Therefore, accounts division of Sungate will not only audit the internal operations, however, they will likewise work in producing information which provides benefits to Sungate by taking external decisions (Wild, 2005). Software Selection: Sungate Sage 50c: Sage50c accounting Software is the best solution for Sungates business. Sage50 accounting software is reliable and trustworthy desktop software with anywhere, anytime, cloud access. This accounting software is a perfect solution for Sungate to work within a accounting program. The organization runs this software from anywhere and at any place. Sage50, accounting software comes with some application such as accounting software should be installed in an accounting framework and have complete Internet access. Sage50c accounting software provides Sungate organization the best or appropriate accounting standards as well as affordable subscription program that give the prizewinning value for Sungate's business. With the help of Sage50c easy or effective business accounting software the Sungates invoices became more effective (Vasarhelyi, Kogan and Tuttle, 2015). The Sage50c accounting software provides best accounting guidelines, safe desktop installation and unqualified access t o help and provides subscription programs that provide the best esteem for Sungates business. When Sungate decides to move its business procedures to the cloud platform it need to keep its accounting information safe on the desktop as well as expand its potential on a cloud platform and online applications. Sage50c accounting software is a well-known project as it incorporates an assortment of imperative and easy to understand features. While utilizing this accounting software, windows as well as data entry screens, match its genuine paper partners; for instance, Sales Journal screen matches a paper receipt. The Sage50c accounting software is an easy to learn software, providing Sungate with icons, menus as well as toolbars and keyboard excited commands (Zhang, 2008). With the help of Sage50c accounting software, Sungates payroll entry system become straightforward and eliminates the requirement of the manual payroll system. This accounting software helps Sungate to keep suitable tr ack of its inventory (Penno, 2008). Software Vendor If Sungate association is looking to grow and thrive, Sage organizations accounting software helps it at any time and at any stage by providing best accounting software. Sage provide the solution for Sungate to keep its accounting process on track. Achievement in the field of accounting software is simply ahead of Sungate. Sage offers straightforward, practical, solutions for organizations like Sungate whether it need its information on-site or within the cloud (Warren, Moffitt and Byrnes, 2015). Sage helps Sungate to bring its business to a higher level. It's not only about providing Sungate with a solution however, Sages accounting software provides a system to help Sungate to succeed and give some tips and exhortation to Organization's business managers to take its accounting system to the next level. More than Six million clients globally trust Sages Thirty years of brilliant experience. Sages accounting software manages the accounting of Human Resource, ERPs, payrolls, payments, resources as well as real estate organizations (Collier, 2003). Sage Organization covers Sungates business needs from simple cash management to billing procedures as well as provide full accounting or inventory management of accounting reports. Conclusion This study concludes that the role of AIS in Sungate organization is to address the requirements of the Sungates Accounts division and provide aligned organizational requirements. It has also been concluded that the modern association will fail to take decisions in the absence of effective accounting information frameworks. Hence, AIS will empower in providing data that modern associations can utilize to take suitable as well as sound decisions. Furthermore, it differs from one accounting business to another. It also concludes that AIS should help every organization to achieve its goal by enhancing its accounting models and improves its decision-making processes. References Bhimani, A. (2012). Management accounting system implementation success: is reporting useful information sufficient?. International Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Performance Evaluation, 8(2), p.115. Chapman, C. and Kihn, L. (2009). Information system integration, enabling control and performance. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 34(2), pp.151-169. Ciftci, M. (2010). Accounting Choice and Earnings Quality: The Case of Software Development. European Accounting Review, 19(3), pp.429-459. Collier, P. (2003). Accounting for managers. West Sussex, England: J. Wiley. Christensen, J. (2010). Conceptual frameworks of accounting from an information perspective. Accounting and Business Research, 40(3), pp.287-299. Fisher, I. (2007). A prototype system for temporal reconstruction of financial accounting standards. International Journal of Accounting Information Systems, 8(3), pp.139-164. Funnell, W. (2012). The information master: Jean-Baptiste Colbert's secret state intelligence system. Accounting History Review, 22(1), pp.100-103. Information technology. (2012). [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Govt. Accountability Office. Issue Information - TOC. (2016). Australian Accounting Review, 26(1), pp.1-1. Jiang, X. (2016). Biases in Accounting and Non-Accounting Information: Substitutes or Complements?. Journal of Accounting Research. Lin, P. and Smith, L. (2006). Using a Web Based Accounting System for Teaching Accounting System Design and Implementation. Journal of Information Systems, 20(2), pp.65-79. Mohd, E. (2005). Accounting for Software Development Costs and Information Asymmetry. The Accounting Review, 80(4), pp.1211-1231. Nikitkov, A. and Sainty, B. (2008). Designing and Implementing an Information System for the Dental Office of Branckowitz Young. Accounting Perspectives, 7(4), pp.341-352. Peng, J. and Janie Chang, C. (2010). Applying XBRL in an Accounting Information System Design Using the REA Approach: An Instructional Case*. Accounting Perspectives, 9(1), pp.55-78. Powner, D. (2012). Information technology. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Govt. Accountability Office. Penno, M. (2008). Rules and Accounting: Vagueness in Conceptual Frameworks. Accounting Horizons, 22(3), pp.339-351. Romney, M. and Steinbart, P. (2006). Accounting information systems. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. Simon, J., Stier, B. and Reese, S. (2015). Numerical analysis of layered fiber composites accounting for the onset of delamination. Advances in Engineering Software, 80, pp.4-11. Suryanto, S. (2011). Design and Analysis: Payroll of Accounting Information System. CommIT (Communication and Information Technology) Journal, 5(1), p.24. Vasarhelyi, M., Kogan, A. and Tuttle, B. (2015). Big Data in Accounting: An Overview. Accounting Horizons, 29(2), pp.381-396. Warren, J., Moffitt, K. and Byrnes, P. (2015). How Big Data Will Change Accounting. Accounting Horizons, 29(2), pp.397-407. Wang, Q. (2008). Software Defect Prediction. Journal of Software, 19(7), pp.1565-1580. Whittred, G. and Zimmer, I. (2009). Accounting Information and Joint Arrangements. Accounting Finance, 26(1), pp.1-12. Wild, J. (2005). Financial accounting. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Zhang, L. (2008). Software Architecture Evaluation. Journal of Software, 19(6), pp.1328-1339.

Tragic Hero Essay free essay sample

In many, a tragedy do the tragic heroes have flaws that lead themselves to their own demise. The main character always acts exactly on his or her own emotions; thus aiding their tragic flaw and leading to their own demise without giving them the time to stop the repercussions of their emotion driven actions. In the play â€Å"Antigone† by Sophocles many of the characters are simply too headstrong and passionate about their beliefs to realize that they would greatly regret the decisions they are making. All of the characters share this characteristic; it is alluded to in the play that this is caused by their blood relation to Oedipus and how they are too cursed. Creon displays his tragic flaw on his sleeve; this is seen in the scene where he refuses to listen to his son and chooses instead to let his pride blind his eyes to the consequences of his actions. We will write a custom essay sample on Tragic Hero Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He says, â€Å"Am I to rule this land by other judgment than mine own? † to Haemon, in this statement he not only denies any existence of the gods or their wrath but also that no opinion will ever influence his views. Creon does not regret his decision to imprison Antigone, which he did to save face as a king and appease his pride, until it is too late to reverse its tragic effects. The story moves itself forward, as if the Gods are setting revenge upon him for disobeying their laws, before he can manage to humble himself down enough to try to fix his mistake. If Creon had thought about his brash decision and how going against the gods and society overall as well as the impact this decision would have on his life, things might have turned out differently. He instead chooses to solely act upon his own emotions, causing his tragic flaw of pride to create a whirlwind of events before he could correct his actions. Antigone also shows similar brash qualities that allow her tragic flaw(s) of pride, stubbornness, and unyielding passion to influence her decisions and lead to her tragic death. She follows her heart and buries her brother against Creon’s decree, Antigone says â€Å"Nay, be what thou wilt; but I will bury him: well for me to die in doing that. She chooses to go along with the laws of the gods, knowing that her stubborn and fervent actions will ultimately lead to her death. Nevertheless, her existence in itself is looked down and cursed by the gods and as if fate had called for it, she kills herself to appease her stubborn and prideful nature. Her emotions fuel her decisions and before Creon can even begin to regret his own decisions and come to release her, she is dead along with the majority of his loved ones. Haemon, much like his father, has his own tragic flaws of his loyalty and undying love for his would be wife Antigone. Who at the end of the story ends up making a tragic exit and Haemon after failing to convince his father, Creon, to release her chooses instead to hastily follow suit and meet his own tragic demise next to his lover. He makes a emotional and heartbroken choice out of pure desperation for his lost love, without considering how it would affect the people he left behind. Unlike Creon, he didn’t have to face the fact that he caused his mother to kill herself out of despair for her lost son and left his father surrounded by the dead bodies of his loved ones. Haemon had to bear the weight of Creon’s and Antigone’s impetuous decisions after he could not stop and ended up losing to his tragic flaw of love and killing himself. These heroes’ tragic flaws would hardly amount in any despair if alone, but paired with a Greeks heroes’ tendencies to make split decisions based completely on their own emotions it becomes the key to their tragic ends. This passionate nature is a common point among all the characters and is a major factor as to why things often go irreversibly wrong before the tragic hero has a chance to regret their choice. Without this common point aiding the tragic flaw seen in Greek characters, many stories would not end in such a despairing way.

Free Essays on Wordsworth

worth is talking about. Porphyro is surrendering to the desire, â€Å"the fire,† of his heart; meanwh... Free Essays on Wordsworth Free Essays on Wordsworth Wordsworth’s Nature In most of Wordsworth’s poetry he seemed to try and make the reader aware of their environment, of their dependence on it for health, sanity and ultimate happiness. He wanted to nature to confirm that love, joy and beauty were not just fragile human values but cosmic absolutes. Often Wordsworth used unique methods of sensory perception as well as combining the physical world with nature on a more personal, subjective level. Much of his poems use these and other techniques to display the possibility of living contently, looking within nature for inspiration and fulfillment. Wordsworth’s poem Animal Tranquility and Decay, which he wrote in 1798, merely twenty-eight years into his existence, displays his early realization of such perceptions. This poem uses a oblivious man walking as a subject to demonstrate the possibility of absolute happiness outside of physical pain. Animal Tranquility and Decay represents a connection between nature, as the physical world, a nd how we live (or the subject of the poem in this case) as a result of it. Wordsworth begins the poem with an simple image. A useful technique to introduce the physical setting of the poem. The little hedgerow birds, That peck along the roads, regard him not. He travels on, and in his face, his step, His gait, is one expression: every limb, The image of this man walking and the birds not paying him any mind, not caring about his presence, is very effective in beginning to create the character’s personality. This is not unlikely for Wordsworth to develop the personality of the characters in his poems with a minimal amount of words and although it is not always possible to decipher whether or not this is intentional, it is none the less effective in turning the poem into something more personal for the reader. Even Wordsworth’s word ch... Free Essays on Wordsworth In â€Å"The World is Too Much with Us,† William Wordsworth presents a conflict between nature and humanity. He repeats the title in the first line of the poem, emphasizing his main point that the aspects of everyday living numb us to the emotions evoked by nature. Wordsworth includes himself in his conviction of mankind, using â€Å"us† rather than â€Å"you.† Something that is â€Å"too much,† is in excess, and therefore tends to cause harm, like the world for us. The harm that Wordsworth discusses includes â€Å"wasting our powers.† Obviously he does not see us as incapable, by describing our abilities as â€Å"powers.† He feels that we waste our passions on â€Å"getting and spending† and neglect to notice how nature is being sacrificed for this progress. We have exchanged our hearts for the materialistic progress of mankind. Not only does an artificial system cause an emotional deficit, but it also alienates people from each other in a very subtle fashion. Wordsworth saw this in the people who give their hearts away, which he equates with a â€Å"sordid boon.† Unlike society, Wordsworth does not see nature as a commodity. The verse, â€Å"Little we see in Nature that is ours,† shows that coexisting is the relationship envisioned. Nature is given human traits to convey a more personal relationship to people. The verse, â€Å"This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon,† gives the image of a woman exposed to the heavens. Wordsworth does not see this as shameful but rather honorable. Like the Sea, he wants people to open themselves up to the passions around them; but instead, we are indifferent to the pleas from nature: â€Å"it moves us not.† He describes us as â€Å"out of tune,† which means that we are not completely doomed, that there is hope to be reconciled with nature. In â€Å"The Eve of St. Agnes,† Porphyro demonstrates the passion that Wordsworth is talking abou t. Porphyro is surrendering to the desire, â€Å"the fire,† of his heart; meanwh... Free Essays on Wordsworth Romantic Poets William Wordsworth writes in his â€Å"Preface to Lyrical Ballads† that â€Å"if the views, with which they [the poems] were composed, were indeed realized, a class of poetry would be produced, well adapted to interest mankind permanently, and not unimportant in the multiplicity and in the quality of its moral relation† (mallor & matlock 574). It has been over two hundred years since Wordsworth penned these lines and yet they have not been lost nor have they been forgotten. The face of poetry has changed since the time of Wordsworth, although mankind’s unwavering fascination with poetry is a testament to its eternal magnetism. In his â€Å"Preface,† Wordsworth defines his poetry and his motivation fastidiously and when comparing the theory to the practice in the case of â€Å"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud,† the reader cannot help but notice his strict adherence. In fact, because the poem is written as a first person narrative, and Wordsworth is the subject of his poem, he is writing about how he thinks, thus it is the very essence of theory in practice. Wordsworth asserts that : Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility: the emotion is contemplated till by a series of reaction the tranquility gradually disappears, and an emotion, similar to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced and does itself actually exist in the mind (580). This explanation is exemplified in his poem, â€Å"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud.† A lonely poet wanders through the country and is met with a â€Å"host† of daffodils. The tranquil scene affects him passively at first as he attempts to take in the scene, then later after returning home he contemplates his experience. After some contemplation, the poet realizes what â€Å"wealth this show has brought† (line 18). When the image is recollected during ... Free Essays on Wordsworth William Wordsworth William Wordsworth was, in my eyes one of the best know romanticist writers of his time. Most of his pieces talk about nature and religion. He, like most romantic poets of his time revolted against the industrial revolution and wrote many pieces about nature in order to go up against it. During the industrial revolution there were many factories being built up that took away most of the open countryside that everyone enjoyed. In these factories, workers were given long hours and little pay for their harsh working conditions. Wordsworth saw this and was appalled at how the factories could first come and take over the land and hire workers for practically no pay and long hours, so he wrote about nature to rebel against the factories. He wrote these poems to let people escape the reality of their lives and have something that was positive to live for. Wordsworth is considered a romantic because his writings were very imaginative, emotional, and visionary. He regularly discussed poetry with his friend Samuel Coleridge, who at the time was also a romantic writer. In their time as friends they wrote and discussed many poems, which later led to the writing of a prelude for his wife whom he had four children with. Originally Wordsworth was from England and was born in 1770 and graduated from Cambridge University. After he graduated he began his work on the idiom of the eighteenth century, which rebelled against the industrial revolution. Dorothy Wordsworth, William’s sister wrote a journal that her and her brother could read when he cared for her during the last twenty years of her life. Her works were not published for many years after she had died. Most of her writing was written without correct punctuation due to the fact that it would only be her and her brother that would be reading her writings. After his sister Dorothy died later on due to physical ailments which later drove her to insanity. ...

Using the Spanish Preposition Sobre

Using the Spanish Preposition Sobre Like many Spanish prepositions, sobre can be used in a variety of ways that dont seem to have any logical connection. One of the more common Spanish prepositions, sobre can be the equivalent of the English prepositions on, about, or over, among others. In some cases, it can help to know that sobre comes from the Latin super-, which, among other things, functioned as a preposition meaning above or beyond. But while a few of the uses of sobre have clearly related meanings, not all do. Be aware that sobre also can function as a masculine noun meaning envelope, packet, or, in informal usage, bed.) Most Common Ways in Which Sobre Is Used Nearly all the time, sobre is used in one of the following ways: Sobre as a Preposition of Location Sobre is often used to indicate that something is on top or or above something. In some such situations, sobre can be used more or less interchangeably with the preposition en. There usually isnt much significant difference, for example, between sobre la mesa and en la mesa, which both can be translated as on the table. Other times, over is a more suitable translation, such as when sobre means above. Coloca una pierna ​sobre el piso. (Place your knee on the floor.)La distribucià ³n correcta de la presià ³n del cuerpo sobre la silla es esencial para el confort. (The correct distribution of the bodys weight over the chair is essential for comfort.)Una lluvia de astillas volà ³ sobre el coche. (A shower of splinters flew onto the car.)Si pudieras volar sobre el ojo del huracn, al mirar hacia abajo verà ­as claramente la superficie del mar o la tierra. (If you could fly over the eye of the hurricane, upon looking down you would clearly see the surface of the sea or Earth.) Sobre Meaning ‘About,’ ‘Concerning,’ or ‘On the Subject Of’ When sobre is used to describe that something concerns or is about a subject, it functions in the same way that de can. In these situations, sobre is usually more formal than de. About is nearly always a good translation, although others such as of are possible. Ésta es la primera edicià ³n sobre un libro sobre nuestra mà ºsica popular. (This is the first edition of a book about our popular music.)Pelà © presenta documental sobre su vida en Nueva York. (Pelà © is presenting a documentary about his life in New York.) ¿Quà © piensas sobre el uso de los antibià ³ticos? (What do you think about using the antibiotics?) Using Sobre To Indicate Superiority or Influence Sobre often can translate over when it is used to indicate superiority in matters of influence or control. El uso del bus triunfa sobre el coche entre los universitarios. (Among university students, the use of buses triumphs over the use of cars.)La industria de salud posee una enorme influencia sobre las polà ­ticas de salud. (The health industry has a great influence over the politics of health.)Me es repugnante la dominacià ³n de un sexo sobre el otro. (The domination of one sex over the other is repugnant to me.) Sobre in Time Approximations Sobre is frequently used in time expressions to indicate that the time given is approximate. The English translations about or around are often used. Sobre is less commonly used in other types of approximations, such as for physical measurements. Sobre las seis de la tarde volvimos al hotel. (We are arriving at the hotel at about 6 in the evening.)Sobre 1940 el mercado de la ciencia ficcià ³n comenzà ³ a subir de nuevo. (Around 1940 the market for science fiction began to grow again.)La tormenta pasar sobre el mediodà ­a de este sbado. (The storm will pass through around noon on this Saturday.)Esperamos olas de sobre cuatro metros de altura. (We are hoping for waves about four meters high.) Sobre for Motion Around Sobre can be used to indicate rotation around an axis. About and around are the most common translations. El planeta gira sobre su eje una vez cada 58,7 dà ­as. (The planet rotates around its axis once each 58.7 days.)La Tierra rota sobre un eje imaginario que pasa a travà ©s de sus polos. (The Earth rotates about an imaginary axis which passes between its two poles.) Key Takeaways The Spanish preposition sobre is common, but it cant be translated by any single English preposition.One common meaning of sobre is to indicate that something is on top or above something else.Another common use of sobre is to indicate the subject that something else, such as a book, is about.

Assessment of Lipase Activity in Pancreatic Extracts Essay

Assessment of Lipase Activity in Pancreatic Extracts - Essay Example (Sizer, Piche and Whitney 2011). It binds the fat molecules on one end and the watery compounds on the other end. On binding to the fat, they form micelles. This process is called emulsification. Bile salts are the derivatives of cholesterol having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. (Madenci and Egelhaaf 2010).The bile breaks down the large aggregates of triglycerides by binding them with the hydrophobic ends and separating the molecules from the aggregates. (Jenkins and Hardie, 2008).The droplets become smaller and smaller by binding to the bile. When the food enters the small intestine, the gall bladder contracts and sends the bile into the intestine. The gall bladder stores the end products of liver including bile salts. Pancreas is a long fat gland that is present behind the stomach and opposite to the first lumbar vertebra. Pancreas is made up of glandular epithelial cells. The clusters contain the acini cells called as acinar cells. (Williams 2001). Pancreas consists of a head, body and tail. Pancreas is connected to the duodenum by two ducts. Pancreas is the gland that contains both exocrine and endocrine parts. It has the retort shaped flask. It is 12-15 cm in length and weighs 90 grams. Every day pancreas produces 1200 – 1500 ml of pancreatic juice. (Pandol 2010). ... The exocrine pancreas secretes a juice containing two components: they are pancreatic enzymes and aqueous alkaline solution. The pancreatic enzymes are secreted by the acinar tissue containing the acini epithelial cells. (Williams 2001). The pancreatic enzymes are very important for our body because they can digest almost all the components of the food without the requirement of other enzymes. The aqueous water component is rich in sodium bicarbonate. The pancreatic enzymes are pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, ribonuclease and deoxyribonulcease. The protein digestive enzymes are produced in the inactive form only. (Pandol 2010). Pancreatic lipases are the only enzyme that can digest the fat. The pancreatic lipase digests the triglycerides into mono glycerides and free fatty acids. The pancreas enzymes are very active in the neutral pH which is provided by the aqueous alkaline solution. Lipase binds to the oil-water interface of the trigl yceride water droplet and hydrolyzes the triglyceride. (Sherwood 2008). Bile acids and colipase are very important for the complete lipase activity. Bile acids increase the surface area for the action of the lipase enzyme. They form micelles with the fatty acid and monoglycerides. By this action the glycerides are removed from the oil-water interface. (Pandol, 2010). The triglycerides are now converted into mono glycerides, free fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are not absorbed directly by the mucus lining of the digestive tract. The mucus lining have aqueous environment and glycerides are hydrophobic. (Reis et al. 2009). The bile salts shuttles the lipid molecules and enters the adsorptive cells of the intestinal villi. These cells are now

Bussiness Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bussiness Communications - Essay Example The ones that have existed thus far have relied a great deal on the phenomenon attached with change and consistent upgrading of the needs as put forward by the business and its norms. Organization structure impacts the manner in which work is basically carried out. More than anything else it adheres to the different purposes of the discrete services and the related achievements with the passage of time. This brings to light the notion of discussing the structural basis of the organizations themselves. For starters, these organizations might not be that easy to understand at the very beginning. These can encompass a variety of different aspects, features and traditional mindsets which make up their structures. To start with, we see that an organization can either be formally aligned in its ways and means of doing things and different processes or the same might just be in a way informal in quite a few of its activities and tasks. The manner in which it runs across this paradigm is something that needs to be studied in depth before we reach further consensus on their purposes and the kind of achievements that they have had. The communication within an organization can flow in one of three ways or in all the three directions. This means that these three directions pave the way for the ease of communication and there are as such no barriers to arise from the whole equation. The first communication flow is from top to bottom, which means that the communication starts from the top management and goes down towards the middle and lower management. The second form could be the one that starts from the lower or middle management and goes up towards the top management. The third communication flow could be in the kind of peer to peer communication and interaction. This means that the employees and the workers at the same level communicate within their own capacities

Internal Audit Function and Fraud Detection in Government Essay Example for Free

Internal Audit Function and Fraud Detection in Government Essay CHAPTER ONE 1. 0Introduction This chapter will cover the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the objectives, the research questions, and the scope, the significance of the study and the structure of the report. 1. 1Background of the Study According to Hector Perela, (2009), Internal auditing function with other intervention mechanisms like financial reporting and external audit to helps maintain cost-efficient contracting between owners and managers. It is designed by government agencies to add value and improve organizational performance. It helps organizations accomplish their objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approaches to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control and governance processes. † Internal audit helps organizations to ensure that financial and other records are reliable and complete. As well as ensuring that management adheres to policies and procedures for orderly and efficient conduct of the business, proper recording and safeguarding of assets and resources. The purpose of internal audit as far as the organization is concerned is to get accounting errors corrected and control weaknesses eliminated. The most testing time for the internal auditor is the report he/she writes to achieve this end. No precise legal definition of fraud exists; many of the offences referred to as fraud are covered by the Theft Acts of 1968 and 1978. Generally, the term is used to describe such acts as deception, bribery, forgery, extortion, corruption, theft, conspiracy, embezzlement, misappropriation, false representation, concealment of material facts and collusion. For practical purposes fraud may be defined as the use of deception with the intention of obtaining an advantage, avoiding an obligation or causing loss to another part. Internal Audit, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK) On one hand, fraud detection in government agencies involves employees or managers of the victim organization (commercial angles news letters 2001), the most effective tools for fraud detection are internal audit review, specific investigation by management, employee notification, and accidental discovery. Fraud detection helps Management to address its responsibility through development of an appropriate design of the system of internal control and the effective operation of that system. Numerous fraud prevention and detection techniques are now utilized to reduce the direct and indirect costs associated with all forms of fraud. These various techniques include but are not limited to: fraud policies, telephone hot lines, employee reference checks, fraud vulnerability reviews, vendor contract reviews and sanctions, analytical reviews , password protection, firewalls, digital analysis and other forms of software technology, and discovery sampling (Thomas and Gibson, 2003). Government departments implements the ideas and decisions of executive government in a particular area of governance. Each department is led by a minister in charge or commissioner, and the main work of the department is determined by legislation. Despite the internal audit function, many government agencies fail to detect fraud for example loss of huge monies in NAADS. The National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) is a Ugandan government agency created in 2001 to improve rural livelihoods by increasing agricultural productivity and profitability.

Cuba Essay example -- Cuban Politics, Communism, Fidel Castro,

Cuba is a very unique country with regards to government and politics. It is distinctive not only in its being the last communist country in Latin America, but also due the fact that it has and is continuing to undergo major changes with regards to government policy. Through analysis of the five criteria for democracy, and scrutiny of systems theory, political scientists can see that Cuba is on the path to momentous political change due to its rapidly deteriorating, soviet modeled, communist government. Before breaking down the components of the criteria for democracy and systems theory as they apply to Cuba, it is important to briefly consider the aforementioned countries history. Cuba’s current government began after President Batista was overthrown in a violent coup led by Fidel Castro in 1959. In 1961 Castro formally declared Cuba a socialist state; it is now recognized simply as a totalitarian communist state (US State dept, 3/25/10). While the Cuba does have a written constitution allotting civil rights, it for all intents and purposes, negates these liberties by declaring that, â€Å"any citizen attempting to prevent the growth of socialism† is exempt from said rights (US State dept, 3/25/10). The constitution also identifies the Cuban Communist Party as the only party with legal legitimacy. As one may have already inferred from these stringent governmental laws, the economy is also controlled entirely by the communist party, this however is one of the interest ing points in the analysis of the Cuban political the system as a large portion of the government employed workforce is soon to be fired in favor of a move to the private sector (The Economist, Nov. 2010). At the time of the US state departments report on Cuba, eighty-t... ... five criteria for democracy as presented by Charles Hauss, Cuba failed miserably in competitive elections and rule of law, on the other hand while certainly far from industrialized democracies, recent developments hint at the potential for improvements in civil rights and the prevalence of capitalism. As far as systems theory is concerned in Cuba, it is almost impossible until improvements are made In the aforementioned civil rights criterion. Finally as it compares to other communist countries, Cuba is showing signs of travelling the path of the USSR and facing collapse as Perestroika begins and the regime is restructured. All things considered, Cuba has become an immensely intriguing country for political scientists in recent years as it has begun several transitions toward far greater democratization than it had ever experienced under its former leader.

Andrew Marvell’s to His Coy Mistress

Marvell's To his Coy Mistress Author(s): Walter A. Sedelow, Jr. Source: Modern Language Notes, Vol. 71, No. 1 (Jan. , 1956), pp. 6-8 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/3043707 . Accessed: 29/12/2010 18:37 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp.JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=jhup. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the s creen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. The Johns Hopkins University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Modern Language Notes. http://www. jstor. org Marvell's To His Coy Mistress f for tightness on Reflecting the measure of Marvell's celebrity we poetic organization, may find it ironic that the final,climactic lines in his mostwidelyacclaimedlyricremainformostreadersand critics essentiallydisjoined from the poem as a whole, and from their origin as well. AlthoughTillyard chose To his Coy Mistress as his allusionforthe typeof a highlyorganized(† plotted†) lyric,' Marvell's 2 demonstrated and Wallerstein and Tuve 3 have elaborately couplet images,the concluding Christian symbolic usage of traditional appears neverto have been loselyrelatedto the centralsignificance of the poem,nor to its Biblical source. T. S. Eliot, for example,in discussionof the poem never mentionsthe conhis distinguished for cluding lines,much less theircentralsignificance the whole,and 5 nor Macdonald has caughtthe 6 Margoliouth it appearsthat neither source of the images. Bradbrookand Thomas noted7 that â€Å"make but beyond our sun / Stand still† derivesfromJoshua and Jericho, that theirexplicationis this: that the lovers† are not Joshuas,they are gods,† for though they † cannot controlTime, yet . . it is whereby alone thatsuppliesthemotive powerof existence theirenergy Time is created. † Whatthis does not do is showthat † we will make him run† is also Old Testamentand that when seen against the of context its sourcein the Psalms we findnew essential meaningfor the coupletin the poem and forthe poem in the couplet. 8 on The modelforAddison'sOde († The spaciousfirmament high†), Psalm 19 († The heavensdeclarethe gloryof God â€Å") reads in verses 4-6 (King JamesVersion): Their [i. e. , the heavens'] line is gone out through all the earth, 1E.M. W. Tillyard, Poetry Direct and Oblique (London, 1934), p. 198. Ruth C. Wallerstein, Studies in Seventeenth Century Poetic (Madison, 1950). Rosemund Tuve, Elizabethan and Metaphysical Imagery (Chicago, 1947). 4 T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays (New York, 1950), pp. 251-263; also, in Andrew Marvell . . . Tercentenary Tributes, ed. W. H. Bagguley (London, 1922), pp. 63-78. 6 H. M. Margoliouth, ed. , The Poems and Letters of Andrew Marvell, 2 vol. (Oxford, 1927). 6 Hugh Macdonald, ed. , The Poems of Andrew Marvell (London, 1952). 7M.C. Bradbrook and M. G. Lloyd Thomas, Andrew Marvell (Cambridge, Eng. , 1940), p. 44. 8 Margoliouth indicated (p. v) that he would not include unnece ssary annotations, and perhaps the Joshua aspect of the image is obvious, but not so for the rest, for all Bradbrook and Thomas suggest here is Donne's The Sunne Rising, with which the parallel is comparatively loose. 2 Modern LaLnguageNotes And their words to the end of the world. In them hath he set a tabernacle for the sun, Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber, And ejoiceth as a strong man to run a race. His going forth is from the end of the heaven, And his circuit unto the ends of it. Disregardingfor the nonce the apparentlyincidental,but by no between†end of the world† and correspondence means irrelevant, â€Å"by the Indian Ganges' side † (when takenin antipodalconjunction with† by the tide/ Of Humber†), we noticethat in bothpsalm and withthe poemthe image of the sun as runnerappearsin conjunction idea of the onset of the physicalphase of love.This double coincibut not likelyto be accidental, far moreconclusive, denceis, perhaps, i s far and, moreimportant, more significant the additionalmeaning of for the couplet and poem that a recognition the source provides, percept established of the evident, a it for,first, provides confirmation equivalent of intensity lovingin a brieftimethe thatwitha sufficient in experiencecan be achieved of slow-paced loving over a vast eternity(and we may urge that Time, the Sun, a strongman and would have to run long and hard to encompass runner hencea strong of the precise confirmation which see their accomplishment-for of below) ; second, the recognition Marvell's sun as a bridegroom recalls us to the firstidea of the poem,for the bridemagnificently groom† comingout of his chamber. . . who] rejoicethas a strong lover-and man to run a race,† is a splendidformforthe unhurried therebythe meaning of the third paragraph is enhanced by an as withthe first foil and a generalsense of unity contrast immediate is achievedby havingthe verylast line and last idea recall the first of third,the recognition the sun as a lines and firstidea; further, self-confident strong and perhapseven saunteringly â€Å") († bridegroom to â€Å") casual († comingout of his chamber whois to be compelled run for developed the poem'sthird brutality sustainsthe tone of vigorous if paragraph;fourth, the Sun (who createstime,and who by making also createsworld), if the Sun, man's standpoint life possible,from bave to run hard, then he must create a would a powerful runner, vast amount of time and a vast amount of world indeed-† world enough and time† one would think,for after all if he won't be of made to stand still (i. e. , to createan infinity time), this powerful runnerwill be â€Å"made to run† (i. e. , run hard) which is the next best thing (i. e. , to create a vast, if finite,time, and world), and VOL. LXXI, January 1956 7 s all that was asked for anyway: â€Å"world enough and time,† not â€Å"infinityand eternity. † Marvell m ay well have smiled as he thoughthow this runner's † goingforth from end of the heaven, And his circuituntothe / is the worldenough! And ends of it â€Å"-for all the worldmustbe precisely thus the lovers' sense of their iron straitsbecomesthe conditionof liberation:theycan forcethe sun to be his ownundoing. theirperfect Amherst College WALTER A. SEDELOW, JR. Pope, Sheffield, Shakespeare's and JuliusCaesar From 1721 through1724 Pope energetically pursuedtwo editorial tasks:he prepared publication collected for the works JohnSheffield, of Duke of Buckingham,and the plays of Shakespeare.His correspondencereveals that he was preoccupiedby his editorial duties, for in at least two lettersof 1721 and 1722, to Jacob Tonson and JohnCaryll,he pondered botheditions progress in ‘-clearly Sheffield and Shakespearewere at timesassociatedin his thoughts. It is my purposeto showthat,as a result,in his emendations Shakespeare's of Julius Caesar Pope let his judgmentas editorbe influen ced turns by of phraseand alterations Shakespeare'stext made by Sheffield in in his veryfreeadaptation,The Tragedyof Julius Caesar. † Because Sheffield, all otherAugustan† improvers of Shakelike speare,considered himselfunder no obligationto followhis original closely,he did not consistently retain the basic structure Shakeof speare's dialogueand action; often,in fact,he diverged wildlyfrom it.Obviously, onlythoseparts of Sheffield's Caesar mostresembling Shakespearemay be consideredas having affected Pope's decisions as editor,but a comparison them to parallel passages in Pope's of edition of Shakespeare'splay will reveal that Pope took five suggestionsfromthem. Three of these are verbal alterations, one is a † degradation of a passage Pope considered † and the fifth doubtful, transfers speechfromone character another. a to Of thetwelve doublecomparatives superlatives Shakespeare's and in 1 Pope to Tonson, George Sherburn, The Early Career of Alexander Pope (Oxford, 1934), p. 307; Pope to Caryll, Works of Pope, ed. Elwin and Courthope (London, 1871-1889), vI, 280. S Modern Language Notes

Comparing Rich Points

Comparing Rich Points: Understanding Japanese Languaculture Research Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for graduation with Research Distinction in Japanese in the Department of East Asian Languages & Literature at The Ohio State University by Andrew Gaddis The Ohio State University March 2012 Project Advisor: Professor James M. Unger, Department of East Asian Language and Literature 1 1. Introduction In this thesis, I attempt to show the linguistic and non-linguistic behaviors that are found prominently throughout Japanese society. This paper is divided into two major parts.The first is devoted to describing the prominence of the metaphorical concept LEARNING IS A JOURNEY in the linguistic behavior of Japan. The second describes how the same metaphorical concept is also found throughout the non-linguistic behavior of the Japanese culture. Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1979) general theory of meaning, this paper examines a particular instance of the r elationship between Japanese culture and language in detail, namely the Sino-Japanese noun doo ‘road, way’ ? and native noun miti. Lakoff and Johnson argue convincingly that metaphors are not just literary or poetic uses of words separate from ordinary language use.Metaphorical relations, in their view, are essential to how speakers of a language deal with meanings. One of their key examples is the journey metaphor seen in such English sentences as â€Å"We arrived at a conclusion† and â€Å"I don’t think our relationship is going anywhere. † For Lakoff and Johnson, such sentences illustrate the metaphors ARGUMENTS ARE JOURNEYS and LOVE IS A JOURNEY. Sino-Japanese doo is frequently used as a suffix in nouns with meanings that connote a spiritual path or way, or at least some method of self-cultivation. Since the character ? s customarily glossed miti, this native noun too has that metaphorical connotation. This character was adopted from China by wa y of the Korean peninsula in 2 the 1st millennium CE (Frellesvig 2010), where it long had a strong metaphorical connotation (spiritual path or way) already in the classics of the 1st millennium BCE, most notably the Daodejing of Laozi . Today, we see its widespread use in non-Daoist contexts. I argue that these expressions show that the underlying metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is particularly robust in Japan language life (gengo seikatu . By comparing Japanese doo and miti ‘road, path’ with English journey, we find similarities and differences that can be understood in terms of the concepts languaculture and rich points introduced by Michael Agar in his book Language Shock. As I will discuss in detail in Section 4, Agar argues (1) that language use cannot be understood outside the cultural context in which it is used, and (2) that conspicuous differences in the way two languacultures talk about the same or similar real-world facts and events reveal how they are struc tured.Human beings have much in common all over the world, so similarities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for people living in similar ecological circumstances. Rich points stand out precisely because they occur unexpectedly when one compares two languacultures. By comparing Japanese doo and miti with English journey in Lakoff and Johnson’s sense, I propose to show that the journey metaphor is a locus of an important rich point found within the two languacultures. I turn to the topic of pilgrimages in the second part of the paper (Section 5).Pilgrimages has long had played a significant role in Japanese religious practice. By the time of the Edo period, a gentleman was expected to cultivate skills in â€Å"medicine, poetry, the tea ceremony, music, the hand drum, the noh dance, etiquette, the 3 appreciation of craft work, arithmetic, calculation, literary composition, reading and writing† (Totman 1993,186). Once one has acquired considerable skil l in the art of pursuit, they would often go on a pilgrimage to learn more about the art and study the methods used in distant places. For this reason, pilgrimages were an important learning experience for the Japanese people.Here, I argue that the concept of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY exists even in the non-linguistic behavioral context. In the end of the section, I argue that LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a common concept to both the linguistic domain and the non-linguistic domain of Japanese languaculture. I attempt to prove that the commonality found in the two domains is not due to a cause-and-effect relationship, where one domain causes the other. Instead, I suggest that both of these behaviors have their origins from a common set of historical circumstances, namely the impact of Chinese culture, Buddhism and Daoism.I argue that the impact of Buddhism and Daoism on Japanese intellectual thought have played a bigger role in shaping this conceptual metaphor that are prominently seen in bo th the linguistic and non-linguist domains of Japanese culture. 2. Theory of metaphor For most people, metaphorical expressions are assumed to be extensions of ordinary language, that is, instances of language outside of conventional usage intended to represent or suggest non-literal meaning. For this reason, metaphor is seen as extraordinary—a device of the literary or poetic imagination. Opposing this view, 4Lakoff and Johnson argue that metaphor is pervasive in everyday language, thought, and action. To understand metaphor, one must first identify its source. Lakoff and Johnson claim that metaphor originates in prelinguistic thought, not in language per se. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people. Thus, our conceptual system plays a central role in defining our notions of reality. Since we are not consciously aware of most of the actions we do everyday, distinguishing the different components of our concept ual system is by no means straightforward.However, because communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, we can figure out just what that system is like through linguistic analyses. To give a concrete example, Lakoff and Johnson start off with the concept ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR. The following is a list of sentences that they cite to illustrate this point: ARGUMENT IS WAR Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target. I’ve never won an argument with him. You disagree? Okay, shoot! (Lakoff & Johnson 1979, 4) 5Notice that these sentences are not just explicitly about war but the actions mentioned in the sentences only make sense in relation to the concept of war. Since argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something or to accept a particular conclusion, we can conceive of arguments as something to win or lose. We defend our position an d strategize a way to attack our opponent’s claims. Though a physical battle does not take place, a verbal one does, and many of the actions we perform in an argument reflect this. This instance well illustrates how metaphor pervades not just language but thought and action as well.The full significance of this theory does not come into sight when looking at a single language and its ambient culture. Try to imagine a culture where arguments are not viewed in terms or war, where no one wins or loses, or where there is no sense of attacking or defending. Imagine a culture where direct confrontation is shunned, where people are extremely cautious not to disprove the opinions of others, where the participants’ social statuses determine the amount of force that will be considered as appropriate in the conversation, and go-betweens are used to solve most conflicts.In such a culture, people would, according to Lakoff and Johnson, view, experience, perform, and talk about the arguments differently. But the people of our culture might not see them as â€Å"arguing† at all, because what they are doing does not fit our metaphorical understanding of what constitutes arguing. This is how a metaphorical concept structures what we do and how we experience it. It is not that arguments are a subspecies of war in any metaphysical sense. It is rather there is a type of conversation that, in English-speaking culture, is 6 viewed, experienced, performed, and talked about in terms of war.The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. Although metaphor plays a central role in structuring language, there is nevertheless an extensive range of concepts that are not comprehended with the use of metaphor, which often is referred to literal language. For example, the sentence â€Å"The apple fell on Newton’s head† can be deployed in a completely literal wa y. It could be an example sentence in an academic paper on generative syntax, or a sentence in a child’s book explaining a picture.But in our language, one is more likely to encounter this sentence in a context in which it is freighted with metaphorical meaning. It is typically deployed in contexts where the speaker wants to let the listener know that s/he sees a relevant comparison between something they have either observed or known about and beliefs they share about the invention and discovery. The sentence may be used in a humorous or ironic way (making fun of someone suddenly realizing something), or a dramatic, serious way (praising someone with a proverbial reference).By comparing our abstractions (ideas, emotions, etc. ) to what can be physically experienced, we can get a grasp on them in clearer terms. The JOURNEY metaphor is commonly used in many languages. In English, we have many expressions where the concept of love is often described as that of a journey, which will be referred to as LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. For example, take a look at the following common expressions: 7 Look how far we’ve come. We’re at a crossroads. We’ll just have to go our separate ways. We can’t turn back now. I don’t think this relationship is going anywhere.Where are we? We’re stuck. It’s been a long, bumpy road. This relationship is a dead-end street. We’re just spinning our wheels. We’ve gotten off the track. (Lakoff & Johnson 1979, 44) In every case, love is understood in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travelers, and the relationship is the vehicle. The purpose of the journey is for the travelers to reach a destination, more precisely, for the lovers to accomplish their goals of common interest. What the dead-end street and spinning wheels are alluding to are the difficulties in reaching that destination.The purpose of these expressions is to encourage the listener to draw an inference. Take the expression â€Å"Where are we? † for example. Outside of the love metaphor context, it is a simple question. The metaphorical context invites the listener to reflect on how things came to be the way they are, how they might have turned out differently, and what could be done now to 8 change them. By accepting the scenario of making a journey toward the consummation of love, we can comprehend the analogy used to reason the human relationship of love.To end the section on a similar note, it is sometimes said that English secondlanguage learners have trouble with expressions like â€Å"We’re at a crossroads† or â€Å"it’s been a long, bumpy road. † The likely reason for this is because the difficult part of acquiring language proficiency does not so much lie in the process of mastering the vocabulary or grammar of a language, but mastering the metaphors typically used in the language. This is especially the case since dictionari es take only limited account of the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases.The problem is that ways of talking about the experience of love in English language are metaphorically absent in the learner’s language and culture. 1 Therefore, learning to recognize the metaphorical relations in language is key not only to understanding the way the speakers of the language conceptualize the world but also to acquiring language proficiency. The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. 3. doo and miti? Much like in the English language, the JOURNEY metaphor is a frequently used concept in the Japanese language.Take a look at the following examples of the LOVE 1 An idiom is a word or phrase that is morphologically or syntactically irregular with respect to the language in which it occurs. Native speakers often know an expression is idiomatic when asked. Metaphors, on the other hand, often occur below the level of consciousness. 9 IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese: (1) a. koi no katamiti kippu love GEN one-way ticket ‘One-way ticket to love’ b. koizi no yami love’s pathway GEN darkness ‘Love is blind’ c. miti naranu koi path will not love Illicit love affair’ d. huuhu no miti husband and wife GEN path ‘marital values’ Again, in every case love is understood in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travelers, and the relationship is the vehicle. It is noteworthy to mention, that the relationship can take various forms of a vehicle in the journey. Notice that there 10 is no single consistent vehicle that the journey metaphors all use. In example (1a) the vehicle of the relationship is some mode of public transport. Consider a situation when this expression is used.Given that this expression about a relationship is understood in terms of travel, the kind of reasoning evoked should generally reflect a situation where the lovers (travelers) are in a quickly progressing relationship (vehicle) to their goal of common interest (destination). The one-way ticket most likely implies that returning back to the start of the journey is not considered for the travellers, and that they are fast approaching their destination as if they were traveling by some mode of public transport. The rest of the examples, unlike (1a), do not specify the means of transportation for the travelers.For examples (1b) and (1c), this is because the purpose of the expression is to describe the impediments the travelers encounter in pursuing the destination. The literal translation of the two would be ‘darkness of love’s pathway,’ and ‘path that will not lead to the destination of love. ’ What the darkness and misguided path are alluding to is the difficulties in reaching the destination, both of which implies that a change of action needs to be taken to successfully rea ch the destination. (1d) literally translates ‘the path of the married couple. This expression represents the ideal path a married couple should take. Take a look at the following for examples of the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor, which is also commonly found in both languages. (2) 11 a. zinsei yama ari tani ari life mountain exists valley exists ‘Life has its ups and down’ b. ikiru miti live (vb) road ‘The road of life’ c. senri no miti mo ippo kara thousand-mile GEN road FOC one-step ABL ‘A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step’ Notice that the literal translation of these expressions in Japanese and English are highly idiomatic.This is why a word for word rendering of the expressions would seem unnatural. In example (2a), the lexical items yama ‘mountain’ and tani ‘valley’ are translated â€Å"ups† and â€Å"downs. † Knowing that this expression represents life as a sort of journe y with obstacles to overcome, we can conjecture the logic behind this expression without much effort. A traveler would occasionally encounter times of relative ease and difficulty throughout the journey. While walking up a mountain is a laborious task, walking down the mountain into the valley requires considerably less effort.What the metaphor suggests is that the experience of life is much like that. There are times of ups and downs, good and bad, easy and hard etc. Nevertheless, if the expression were to remain in its literal translation, â€Å"life has its 12 mountains and valleys,† it would not be too difficult for the English speaker to comprehend the message being communicated. Since LIFE IS A JOURNEY is a commonly used metaphor in the English language as well, the enormous amount of information that is not explicitly provided will be understood from the knowledge of how life is understood in relation to a journey.It is not that the languages do not have expressions th at are equivalent in meaning, but it is more that the lexical items used to construct a metaphorical expression in one language do not match the lexical items in the other. Therefore, even if the expression is uncommon to the hearer, given that it is a commonly used metaphor in the languages, an intelligent guess can be made to make sense of it all. The following is an example of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor: (3) gakumon ni oodoo nasi scholarship DAT royal-road non-existent ‘There is no Royal Road to learning’Based on the meaning of this expression described in the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the phrase is a translation of the proverbial expression ‘There is no Royal Road to learning’. This phrase is legendarily attributed to Euclid, who is said to have used it in reply to a king’s request for an easier way to learn geometry. A Persian Royal Road actually existed; it was a 1677-mile long highway stretching, in modern terms, from the center of Iran to northern Turkey. To get from the starting point to the end of the highway 13 is believed to have taken over 90 days on foot, but only a week by horse (Herodotus 1889, 213).By metaphorizing the process of learning geometry as a lengthy journey, the claim that a Royal Road did not exist not only signified that there was no shortcut but also that even a king could not make one, as the Persian kings had made the Royal Road. It is interesting to note that despite long survival and overuse, the metaphor retains an appeal for speakers of many languages and is still used. Even Sigmund Freud famously described dreams as â€Å"Royal Road to the unconscious† in The Interpretation of Dreams, 1889 [1998]. In the context of Japanese culture, however, there are many expressions where learning is understood in terms of a journey.The reason for this is because the metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a more salient feature in the Japanese language. The following are commonly used expressions of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese: (4) a. manabi no miti o aruku learning GEN road ACC walk (vb) ‘Walk the way of learning’ b. manabi no miti-annai learning GEN guidepost ‘A guidepost of learning’ 14 c. manabi no sen-ri no miti learning GEN thousand-ri GEN road ‘The thousand-ri way of learning d. manabi no miti ni wa owari wa nai learning GEN the way LOC TOP end TOP non-existent There is no end in the way of learning’ The examples in (4) shows that a metaphorical noun phrase ? ’ â€Å"path† modified by â€Å"learning† can be used in the various expressions. In every case, learning is understood in terms of a journey, and it is clear that the learner is a traveler in pursuit of knowledge. The purpose of the journey is for the traveler to reach a desired destination, more specifically, acquiring knowledge. In these examples, learning relates to journey in the sense that the traveler will leave his or her known environment and venture into an unknown place where new discoveries will be made.In example (4a) the traveler is selfpropelled. That is to say, the traveler’s volition is the vehicle. The expression is probably used in situations where the person using the phrase is still in the progress of acquiring knowledge. Example (4b) illustrates a situation where the learner (traveler) makes use of available resources to alleviate the impediments of reaching the destination (acquiring knowledge). For instance, a traveler will often make use of guideposts as a guide for reaching the desired destination. Similarly, the learner will often rely on teachers, books, 15 r the like to guide them to acquiring knowledge. (4c) illustrates a situation where acquiring knowledge is an arduous task, and it compares this difficulty of attaining knowledge to long distance travel. (4d) is a common expression saying that there is no end to learning. Again, we know that all of these expressions are metaphorical because none of them would make sense literally. More examples are provided in (5): (5) a. zyoodoo become road (the way) ‘completing the path of becoming a Buddha’ b. zyuudoo gentleness road (the way) ‘judo’ c, aiki syuutoku e no miti aiki acquisition -to GEN road (the way) The way to aikido acquisition’ According to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, zyoodoo is Buddhist terminology that refers to either the moment a Bodhisattva becomes a Buddha after completing certain 16 practices and attains enlightenment, or the time Shakyamuni became enlightened sitting under the Bo tree. This Sino-Japanese term in its literal sense originally meant to attain the way. Zyoodoo is metaphorical inasmuch as it referred in the first instance to the historical Buddha but could then refer to someone else becoming a Buddha; this was no doubt borrowed from a preexisting metaphor use in Chinese.In the case of judo, as shown in (5b), we know that this is in fact a native Japanese noun coined in the Meiji period by the scholar Kano Jigoro (Watson 2008, xv). Before this coinage, this style of fighting was referred to as zyuzyutsu. Which makes sense since martial arts terminology prior to the Meiji period generally used the suffix ? zyutu ‘art, means, technique’ instead of the suffix ? doo. Zyuzyutsu was a brutal method of open handed combat that Kano felt was too violent for the modern age. Thus, in the interest of safety and practicality, he turned it into a sport under the name judo.The new institution Kodokan that he opened in Tokyo was, in his eyes, a place where â€Å"one is guided along a road to follow in life† (Watson 2008, xvi). It must be the case that he applied the suffix doo due to the fact that the metaphorical connotations it carried was appropriate for his philosophy2. The example in (5c) is a title of a book written by Kimura Tatsuo, a mathematics professor at the University of Tsukuba and an aikido enthusia st, about the art of aikido. Syuutoku e no miti generally means ‘the road to acquiring. ’ This phrase is often used to modify the nominal it follows.Thus, aiki syuutoku e no miti in its metaphorical sense means ‘the road to gaining knowledge about aikido. ’ 2 Many other traditional arts and martial arts employed the suffix doo (e. g. kendoo ‘kendo,’ kyuudoo ‘archery,’ sadoo ‘tea ceremony, way of tea’). 17 The reason for the many LEARNING IS A JOURNEY expressions arising in the Japanese language is attributed to an earlier influence from the Chinese classic Daodejing of Laozi. The Chinese word dao (‘road, way’ ? ) has long had strong metaphorical connotation of spiritual path or way. When the oanword and character were adopted in Japanese in the 1st millennium CE, along with them came the connotation. As stated earlier, learning is understood in part by the journey metaphor. Since this thought is crucial to the formation of the meaning, we see an abundance of words whose meanings are shaped by this metaphor. Take the native Japanese verb mitibiku ‘to guide; to lead; to show the way,’ for example. It is a compound word of ? miti and hiku ‘to lead, pull’. This word has departed from the literal meaning based on the meaning of components miti and hiku.We can see this from the following excerpt written by the Japanese poet, Yamanoue no Okura in the Man’yoshu: (6) moromoro no oomikami-tati hunanohe ni mitibiki moosi various NOM god PLUR prow LOC guide request ‘Various gods, I request you to guide this ship by its prow’ The literal meaning based on the components of the word cannot be applied here; however, the metaphorical extension of the meaning can be applied. According to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the word has come to mean â€Å"guide† at least since the 8th 18 century, as we can tell from its use in the excerpt.The definition provided here is not the literal meaning, but the metaphorical. The fact that a metaphorical extension has been added to the literal meaning of the word, illustrates how a new metaphorical connotation may be incorporated into the original literal meaning of a word. In the case of , what probably happened was that the literal meaning it was originally associated with was bleached out over time, and took on the metaphorical meaning as its dominant meaning. Through these examples, we have seen that the journey metaphor has a significant role in the Japanese language. Since the expressions provided n this section are highly idiomatic, in most cases, a word for word rendering of the expressions may not intuitively make sense for the non-native speakers of Japanese. However, that does not take away the fact that the expressions in question surfaces from the same underlying metaphor. There are cases where both languages have an expression that serves the same purpose but the lexical matc hing is not quite the same, and there are cases where lexical matchings will be nearly exact. On the other hand, we have also seen how it is possible for a metaphor to be more salient in one language than in the other.These examples illustrate just how a metaphor common to both languages can manifest itself differently. 4. Languacultures and Rich Points To better understand the similarities and differences of the journey metaphor used in the English and Japanese language, I would like to present the concepts 19 languaculture and rich points introduced by Michael Agar in his book Language Shock. Languaculture refers to the notion that a system of conventionalized symbols, sounds, gestures, or the like used by a particular community for communication cannot be understood without also knowing the conventional behaviors and beliefs of that community.Therefore, he argues, it is necessary to tie the concept of language and culture together whenever talking about language (Agar 1994, 60). Rich point refers to a moment when a person is at a languacultural interface and encounters a difference in the ways of communicating from his or her cultural assumptions3. Let us look at the study of junkies by Agar to illustrate this example of rich points. Junkie is a term often used to refer to heroine addicts. During his two-year service in the U. S. Public Health Service, Agar worked to help treat heroin addicts.As a linguist, he started on a collection of terms used by the addicts. What he found peculiar about the collection of terms was that even though they spoke the same language as he did, they made use of certain words that was unique to the junkies. For example, the process of injecting heroin would be described in different terms by junkies, as opposed to people with background in the medical field. The premedical student will most likely begin describing the process like the following, â€Å"Well, you first take this hypodermic syringe, and then †¦ while the jun kie will say, â€Å"First, you take the works, and then †¦ † According to Agar, the heroin users he met during his service used what is referred to as the works to inject heroin; an assembly of the top of a baby pacifier fastened onto an eyedropper with a needle slipped over its narrow end and a gasket of thread or paper to hold it tight. For this reason, the term works is 3 The term languaculture refers to the notion that the use of language differs with respect to its culture. Therefore, differences in language use also occur within a language by various other subcultures. 0 generally used in their culture to refer to the instrument used for injecting heroin. Now, suppose a context where two junkies are walking up the stairs in a building. Here is what they say: (7) â€Å"Say man, you got your works with you? † â€Å"Yeah, they’re right here in my pocket. Don’t worry about it. † (Agar 1994, 90) After learning what the term works refers to, a n ordinary person may infer that this is a situation where a junkie inquires another to make sure he has the necessary equipment for getting intoxicated. However, that was not the reason for their exchange.Instead, they were concerned about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity. Since the possession of this instrument justifies arrest, the junkies were concerned because they were confined in an enclosed space; an enclosed space does not have much room to run or get rid of the evidence. The reason for the exchange quoted above is that one junkie is worried about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity, and the other reassured that he could get rid of the instrument quickly if an authoritative figure were to appear, since they are right in his pocket.This sort of encounter that arises from one’s languacultural assumptions is what Agar refers to rich points. Human beings have much in common all over the world, so similarities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for people living in similar ecological circumstances. However, occasionally an unexpected use of language will arise which reflects a difference between the underlying conceptual systems between the two languacultures. These conspicuous differences found in the 21 way two languacultures talk about the same or similar real-world facts and events reveal how they are structured.Having established these points, we can now see the similarities and differences that can be understood in terms of languaculture and rich point. As we have seen, the journey metaphor in Japanese languaculture is similar in many respects to that of the English languaculture. A person of the English languaculture can apply many similar uses of the journey metaphor used in his language to convey messages in Japanese. However, once we took a look at the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor, we noticed that there is some underlying difference between the two systems of languacultures.This rich point shows that the journey metaphor used in the Japanese languaculture is not always congruent to its uses in the English languaculture, more precisely that the conceptual metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a much more salient feature of the Japanese languaculture. The reason why this rich point stands out to the English speaking community is precisely because we place a higher emphasis on knowledge as an entity that can be acquired. Take for example common English expressions like â€Å"I was hunting for the facts,† â€Å"I had to track that down,† â€Å"he won his degree at Oxford. The emphasis for these examples is that knowledge is something to be collected, whereas in Japanese, they place a stronger emphasis on knowledge as something that is to be transmitted to the learner through the process of engaging in the act, as we have seen in the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY examples. 22 5. Pilgrimages in Japan Now that we have made this point that the LEARNING IS A JOU RNEY metaphor is a more prominent feature of Japanese languaculture than English languaculture, let us see how it relates to observations we make about English and Japanese behavioral culture.For one, pilgrimages are loaded with rich points. As we can tell from such classical literary works like Heike monogatari and Sarashina nikki, pilgrimages have been an important religious practice for the Japanese people from at least the Heian period. Although it was originally an aristocratic practice, all classes of people were allowed to go on pilgrimages by the time of the Edo period (Vaporis 2008, 165). Due to the development of a national infrastructure provided with lodging, towns, and horses, this period of peace allowed for the masses to travel comfortably in search of spiritual fulfillment.The commoners were permitted to travel by the authorities as long as they were going on a pilgrimage or had familial purposes. Among the many temples and shrines in Japan, the amount of people maki ng pilgrimages to the Ise shrine increased rapidly. The Ise shrine is a Shinto shrine dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu in the city of Ise in Mie prefecture. Since ancient times, the festivals and offerings of the Ise shrine has been scheduled based on the cycle of agriculture. People would go to Ise to give thanks to the kami and pray for a plentiful harvest. ()The desire to make a pilgrimage to Ise Shrine, at least once in one’s life was universal among Japanese people of the day. The people who have had the opportunity to undertake the pilgrimage would share the things that they had seen and heard on the 23 journey. These travelers’ tales inspired others to undertake the journey, in a cycle that perpetuated the legendary status of the Ise pilgrimage as something that everyone should do at least once in their lives. The Edo period is often referred to as a time of peace and stability in Japan, and as such the people had the means and leisure time to pursue their aes thetic enjoyment.To explain, Tokugawa ideology grouped higher cultural attainments into two categories, bu and bun, military and literary arts. A gentleman of the time were expected to show interest in bun, more so than bu. Bun embraced reading and writing, Chinese thought, poetry, history and literature, noh dance and drama, tea ceremony, and other customary arts (Totman 1993, 186). Once one has acquired considerable skill in the art of pursuit, they would often go on a pilgrimage to learn more about the art and methods used in distant places. Thus, pilgrimages were an important learning experience for the Japanese people.Take the renowned haiku poet Matsuo Basho for example. In his travel diary Oku no hoso miti (Keene 1996), Basho journeys on foot to see the sites that had inspired famous poets before him. He knew the location of the places the poems described, and it was important for him to get a direct experience with the inspiration the poets must have felt when composing thei r poem. Basho’s descriptions of the places he visited, many of which were at shrines and temples, were significant not just because the sites were awe-inspiring, but because of the legends and poems associated with the locations.Like the poems that inspired Basho to take on the journey, his own work have in turn inspired others to travel and learn about the places he talk about from a first hand experience. 24 Sangaku pilgrimages are another example. Sangaku are geometrical puzzles written on wooden tablets, which were placed as offerings at Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. In Japan, it is fairly natural to hang wooden tablets at shrines and temples; for centuries before sangaku came into existence, worshippers would bring gifts like the sort to local shrines. The kami, it was said, loved horses, but horses were expensive.So a worshipper who could not afford to offer a living one, offered a horse drawn on a piece wood instead. In fact, many tablets from the fifteenth cent ury and earlier depict horses (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 8). However, there was also a practical purpose in hanging the tablets. Ordinary people at the time could not afford to publish books with their novel mathematical problems. Therefore, as an alternative solution to gain recognition, they took up the ancient custom of bringing votive tablets to temples and began to hang sangaku to advertise their work (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 21).Just like the poets who would travel for the sake of knowledge and experience, a number of geometers including Hodoji Zen, and Sakuma Yoken took â€Å"sangaku pilgrimages† to teach mathematics, encourage amateurs and lovers of geometry, and to hang and see previously hung sangaku in temples around the country. Among these itinerants was Yamaguchi Kanzan, a mathematician from the school of Hasegawa Hiroshi. In his journeys, he recorded a substantial travel diary that describes the sights, meetings with friends and other mathematicians, and the sa ngaku, problems he came across.With many distant mathematicians, he has discussed new technical methods of solving mathematical problems. â€Å"If you buy this book,† he claimed, â€Å"then you will be able to know and obtain without traveling the new technical 25 methods of solving problems of far-away mathematicians† (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 244). () Pilgrimages were an important method of self-cultivation for people from all walks for life, with interests ranging from martial arts to moral philosophy. There are many reasons for the rise in popularity of pilgrimages, but it is probably the case that the roots of this trend come from Zen Buddhism.The history of Zen begins in Japan with the samurai class of Kamakura. Zen Buddhism had little chance of becoming popular in Heian period Kyoto due to the strong opposition of the older schools of Buddhism. Where as in Kamakura, there were no such difficulties. Due to its philosophical and moral nature, Zen appealed greatly to the military classes (Suzuki 1959, 60). As the samurai’s became a new force in politics, they brought with them the newly embraced religion to the court.This in turn had significant influence in not only the court, but through general cultural life of the Japanese people all the way to the Edo period. Buddhist models inspired many of these pilgrimages that we see throughout history. The prototypical pilgrimages example in Japan is when Zen priests go on angya ‘pilgrimage’ , which literally means, â€Å"to go on foot. † Historically, angya referred to the common practice of Zen monks and nuns travelling from master to master, or monastery to monastery, in search of someone to practice Zen with (Baroni 2002, 8).So pilgrimages in Japan took the introduction of Buddhism, which later became associated with prominent Chinese cultures like Daoism, as we can tell from the various pilgrims mentioned earlier. The interesting thing about it is that this religious practice of undertaking a pilgrimage as a method of self-cultivation is emulated by 26 various other disciplines like the ones mentioned in example (5). It is also interesting to note the varying degree of prominence the intellectual journey has in the context of Japanese culture as opposed to the anglophone culture.Although the concept of an intellectual journey exists in the English-speaking world (e. g. visiting national parks, field trips etc. ), it is not quite as common or close to everyday consciousness as it is in Japan. The lack of explicit metaphors that reflect the notion of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY in English languaculture suggests a correlation of this difference with cultural behavior. The question then arises, what is the nature of the correlation between the observations we make in the linguistic and non-linguistic behavior we see about the Japanese?Is it the fact pilgrimages have had played a big role in the history of Japanese culture that because of the metaphorical bias of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY? Or is the causal relation the other way around? Or is there some third explanation? The main reason for the correlation we find between these two types of behavior is probably not a direct causal relationship between the two. Instead, the impact of Daoism and Buddhism on Japanese thought have probably played a role in making both the metaphor and the pilgrimage behavior prominent in Japan.This is indicated by the fact that many pilgrimages were inspired by Buddhist models, which also had a great impact on vocabulary and the content of literature; the relationship therefore seems the result of a common set of historical circumstances affecting both linguistic and non-linguistic behaviors. Both are an expression of this influence. 6. Concluding remarks 27 In this paper, I have given a contrastive analysis of the role the journey metaphor plays in the English and Japanese languages.I have argued that although there are many similarities in the use of the journey metaphor in the two languages, there also are remarkable differences in that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a much more salient feature of the Japanese language. Based on the concepts languaculture and rich points, I have attempted to show that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a locus of an important rich point in Japanese culture, in the sense that it is an underlying conceptual metaphor, which manifests itself in both the linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior of the Japanese culture.To illustrate how this finding might be applied to non-linguistic behavior, I have also examined the issue of pilgrimages. It seems that the correlation between the salience of the metaphor and pilgrimages are due to a common set of historical causes; it does not seem to be the case that the salience of the metaphor was caused by the practice of pilgrimages or vice versa. A contrastive analysis of metaphorical conceptualization proves to be a useful method when examining behavioral differences between two cultures.Further research of this kind should help understand similarities and differences in cultural cognition, linguistics, sociology, and ideology. 28 Work Cited: Agar, Michael. 1994. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. Baroni, Helen. 2002. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. Deutscher, Guy. 2010. Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different In Other Languages. New York: Metropolitan Books Frellesvig, Bjarke. 2010.A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freud, Sigmund. 1889 [1998]. The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans. James Strachey. New York: Avon. Fukagawa, Hidetoshi & Rothman, Tony. 2008. Sacred Mathematics: Japanese Temple Geometry. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Keene, Donald. 1996. The Narrow Road to Oku. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd. Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1979. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 29 Herodotus. 1889. The History of Herodotus: A New English Version.Trans. Rawlinson, George, Rawlinson, Henry, & Wilkinson, John. New York: D. Appleton and Company Suzuki, Daisetz. 1959. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press Vaporis, Constantine. 2008. Tour of Duty: Samurai, Military Service In Edo, and The Culture of Early Modern Japan. Hawai’i: University of Hawai’i Press Watson, Brian N. 2008. Judo Memoirs of Jigoro Kano. Victoria: Trafford Publishing 30